nike atmosphere max skyline Gender Sensitivity Amo

Gender Sensitivity Among Nigerian Ethnic Group
INTRODUCTION
"Gender", in common usage, refers to the differences between men and women. Encyclopaedia Britannica memoranda that gender identity is "an individual's self-conception as being male or female, as distinguished from tangible biological ######." Although "gender" is usually used interchangeably with "######," within the academic fields of cultural studies, gender studies and the social sciences in general, the term "gender" often refers to purely social rather than biological differences. Some view gender as a social construction rather than a biological phenomenon.
According to wikipedia.com; The word gender comes from the Middle English gendre, a loanword from Norman-conquest-era Middle French. This, in rotate, came from Latin genus. Both words mean 'kind', 'type', or 'sort'. They derive ultimately from a widely attested Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root gen-, which is also the source of kin, kind, chief and many other English words.[4] It appears in Modern French in the word genre (type, kind) and is related to the Greek root gen- (to produce), emerging in gene, genesis and oxygen. As a verb, it means propagate in the King James Bible: 1616: Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a different kind. �� Leviticus 19:19
The gender awareness among Nigerian of different ethnic group varies, and this can be viewed from the aspect of the important limitations women face in public/private and traditional positions: their overall work load and the moral pressures and negate opinions of both men and women towards women in leadership. As a result, many women were not empowered to eligible into for leadership positions. The study is accordingly ment to show that for women to be able to participate meaningfully in democratic processes, including local politics, more support would be required for candidates for political positions at household as well as community levels. At the household level,ed hardy shirts, women would need support and aid with domestic chores in array to loosen time to participate in local politics and leadership. At community level,tods online, Local Councillors be they men or women, would need to better comprehend the existence of gender biases against women's participation in local participation processes and their role and responsibilities to counter such prejudices.
On the other hand the Nigeria, The most populous country in Africa, Nigeria accounts for over half of West Africa's population. Although less than 25% of Nigerians are urban dwellers, at least 24 cities have populations of more than 100,000. The variety of customs, languages, and traditions among Nigeria's 250 ethnic groups gives the country a wealthy diversity. The dominant ethnic group in the northern two-thirds of the country is the Hausa-Fulani, most of whom are Muslim. Other major ethnic groups of the north are the Nupe, Tiv, and Kanuri. The Yoruba people are predominant in the southwest.
About half of the Yorubas are Christian and half Muslim. The predominantly Catholic Igbo are the largest ethnic group in the southeast, with the Efik, Ibibio, and Ijaw (the country's fourth-largest ethnic group) comprising a actual section of the population in that area. Persons of different language backgrounds most commonly communicate in English, although knowledge of two or more Nigerian languages is extensive. Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, and Ijaw are the most widely used Nigerian languages.
The Nok people in chief Nigeria produced terracotta statues that have been discovered by archaeologists.[4] In the northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina has logged history which dates behind to approximately AD 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The Yoruba kingdoms of If? and Oyo in the western block of the country were founded about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. Yoruba mythology believes that Ile-Ife is the source of the person race and that it predates any other culture. If? produced the terra cotta and copper brains, the ?y? stretched as far as modern Togo. Another emphatic realm in south western Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well known metropolis of Lagos which is also called "Eko" by the indigenes Now the role of gender will be different according to the ethnic groups in nigeria but before we dwell into that what is the term ��gender role�� A gender role is a set of perceived behavioral norms associated especially with males or females, in a given social group or system. It can be a form of division of labour by gender. It is a focus of analysis in the social sciences and humanities. Gender is one makeup of the gender/###### system, which refers to "The set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological ######uality into productions of human activity, and in which these became needs are satisfied" (Reiter 1975: 159). All societies, to a certain achieve, have a gender/###### system, although the components and workings of this system vary warmhearted from society to society. Most Authors acknowledge that the concrete behavior of individuals is a consequence of both socially enforced rules and values, and individual disposition, whether genetic, senseless, or aware. Some researchers accentuate the objective social system and others emphasize subjective orientations and dispositions. Creativity may reason the rules and values to change over time. Cultures and societies are dynamic and ever changing, but there has been extensive argue as to how, and how quick, they may change. Such debates are especially intense when they comprise the gender/###### system, as people have widely differing views about how many gender depends on biological ######.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is to analyze women's socio-economic roles, their changing contexts and opportunities, as it is in among various ethnic group in Nigeria over space and time, to accomplish this the objectives are:
Analyze the roles of men and women at household and community levels
Identify common constraints to women's participation in leadership positions
Identify ways through which communities can encourage and support women to participate in leadership at local levels
To diagnose gender issues and the socio-economic role of women in the traditional and modern sectors,
To provide countrywide data on opportunities and constraints on women including status of women in education, health, politics, natural resources and civil society, and
To suggest policy measures to improve education and opportunities to enable women at all levels to participate in the new economic order effectively.
STUDY AREA
The study area is Nigeria, which has over three hundred and fifty(350) ethnic groups in 36 states, but the reseach will focus on the three major once with interest in other group such as Ijaw, Edo and Isoko ethnic groups they are introduce briefly under;
The Yoruba (Yor��b�� in Yoruba orthography) are a large ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in Africa; a heap of them speak the Yoruba language (��d��e Yor��b��; ��d�� = language). The Yoruba constitute approximately 21 percent of Nigeria's total population,[1] and around 30 million individuals throughout the region of West Africa.[2] They share boundaries with the Borgu (variously called Bariba and Borgawa) in the northwest, the Nupe and Ebira in the north, the ?san and Edo to the southeast, the Igala and other related groups to the northeast, and the Egun, Fon, and other Gbe-speaking peoples in the southwest. While a heap of the Yoruba live in southwestern Nigeria, there are also substantial indigenous Yoruba communities in Benin, Ghana and Togo, as well as large diasporic Yoruba communities in Sierra Leone, Brazil, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Trinidad, the Caribbean, and the United States.The Yoruba are the main ethnic group in the states of Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Oyo, which are subdivisions of Nigeria; they also constitute a sizable proportion of Kwara and Kogi states as well as of the Benin.Many people of African descent in the Americas have claim to Yoruba ancestry (along with several other ethnic groups) to some degree. A significant percentage of Africans enslaved during the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade in the Americas were Yoruba.
The Igbo, sometimes (especially previously) referred to as the Ibo, are a West African ethnic group numbering in the tens of millions. Most Igbos live in southeastern Nigeria, constituting about 17% of the population of the country; they can also be found in significant numbers in neighboring Cameroon and other African countries. Their language is the Igbo language.The traditional Igbo religion believes in a benevolent inventor, usually known as Chukwu, who created the apparent universe, the uwa. Opposing this force for good is agbara, signification morale or marvelous being.Apart from the natural level of the macrocosm, they also believe that it exists on another level, that of the spiritual forces, the alusi. The alusi are minor deities, and are forces for blessing or havoc, depending on circumstances. They punish social offences and those who unwittingly infringe their prerogatives. The role of diviners is to interpret the hopes of the alusi, and the role of the priest is to placate them with mashes. Either a bishop is chosen through hereditary lineage or he is chosen by a particular Lord for his service, usually after passing through a number of mystical experiences. Each person also has a personalised providence, which comes from Chukwu, and returns to him at the time of necrosis,abercrombie fitch sale, a chi. This chi may be good or bad.
The Hausa are a Sahelian people mainly located in the West black districts of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. There are also premonitory mathematics found in regions of Sudan, Cameroon, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, and Chad and smaller communities dispersed throughout West Africa and on the traditional Hajj path along the Sahara Desert and Sahel. Many Hausa have moved to large coastal cities in West Africa such as Lagos, Accra and Cotonou, as well as to countries such as Libya, in quest of jobs that pay money wages. However, most Hausa remain in small villages, where they grow harvests (Hausa planters time their activities according to seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature) and raise cattle, including cattle. They speak the Hausa language, a membership of the Chadic language group, itself a sub-group of the larger Afro-Asiatic language family.
The Ijaw (also known by the subgroups "Ijo" or "Izon") are a accumulation of peoples indigenous mostly to the woods regions of the Bayelsa, Delta and Rivers States within the Niger Delta in Nigeria. Some are originals of Akwa Ibom, Edo and Ondo states also in Nigeria. Many are found as emigrant fishermen in camps as far west as Sierra Leone and as far east as Gabon onward the West African coastline. They are believed to be some of the earliest citizens of southern Nigeria. The Ijo people number about 9 million. They have long lived in locations approach many sea trade routes, and they were well connected to other areas by trade as early as the 15th century
Isoko While some people believed that the Isoko people originated from the Benin Kingdom, others, like Professor Obaro Ikime, believe this to be untrue. Ikime states "If there is whichever facet of the history of the various peoples of Nigeria about which no one can talk with anyone exactitude, it is that which deals with the origins of our peoples."The belief that the most of the Isoko groups are of Benin origin were outlooks held and expressed in the 1960s and 1970s. These views were "decidedly simplistic and were based on British Intelligence Reports of the 1930s"and Ikime's field work of 1961-1963

Edo people Benin City is called Edo by its inhabitants and in certain contexts individuals from all parts of the kingdom will refer to themselves as ovbiedo (child of Edo ). Except when speaking English, no Edo person ever refers to himself as "Benin" or "Bini". These are non-Edo words of dubious origin used by Europeans as an adjective and for the dominant people of the Edo kingdom and their language. Perhaps, this can be linked to the pre-colonial practice of naming areas after major geographic landmarks, in this case the Bight of Benin. It is on record that in 1472, the Portuguese skipper Ruy de Siqueira brought a navigating boat as far as the Bight of Benin beneath the reign of Oba Ewuare. Egharevba provides further confirmation that Europeans named areas after major geographic landmarks. According to him, the tag Lagos (the popular capital City of Nigeria) can be traced to the Portuguese because of its vicinity to the lagoon. It has been suggested that "Benin" or "Bini" derive from the Yoruba phrase Ile-ibinu (land of vexation) which was purportedly uttered by Prince Oronmiyan declaring the fundamental fact that "only an Edo prince can rule over Edo land." This Yoruba-based etymology of "Benin" or "Bini" is ambiguous since there is evidence indicating that these words already occur in Portuguese books about Edo dating back to the fifteenth century. According to Crowder, "unfortunately little is known about the early history of Oyo, for there was no written language, unlike Benin which was first visited by Europeans at the end of the fifteenth century." Not until the end of the seventeenth century are there any certain dates for the history of Oyo which is no doubt linked to the later adjoin with the Europeans. The different close neighbors refer to the Edos by different names. For example, the Urhobos call the Edos ikhuorAka (the people of Aka), the Ikas (Agbor) use the label ndi-Iduu (the people of Iduu). Along this line of reasoning, the Yoruba phrase Ile-ibinu, later corrupted to Ubinu, may be Yoruba's name for the Edos in light of the constant war against the Oyo dynasty by different Edo kings. This explanation is particularly striking because the Yorubas (case in point, the Ekitis) refer to the Edo as Ado and not Ubinu. However, according to Egharevba it was Oba Ewuare Ne ogidigan (The large), about 1440 A.D to 1473 A.D, who changed the name of the country to Edo after his deified (maid) friend. Prior to this, the land had been called the land of Igodomigodo. Thus, the City has been known then as Edo ne ebvo ahirre (Edo the City of love) because through love Edo (the domestic friend) was able to retention Ewuare from a sudden death.

SCOPE OF STUDY
The study will be restricted to the areas such as
Cultures and gender roles,
Gender equity,
Women in leadership position,
Women empowerment,
Gender equity,
Women empowerment: teaching,
Women and HIV/AIDs,
All of the issues listed upon will be viewed in terms of the various ethnic groups in Nigeria and more over what obtains as yet compared to the past. The data would be collated and a comparative analysis would be made.









ETHNICITY IN NIGERIA
To begin with, ethnicity1 may be defined as ��the employment or mobilization of ethnic identity and difference to gain advantage in situations of competition, conflict or cooperation�� (Osaghae 1995:11). This elucidation is favored because it identifies two issues that are central to discussions on ethnicity. The first is that ethnicity is nor normal neither perchance, but is the product of a conscious effort by social actors. The second is that ethnicity is not only obvious in conflictive or competitive relations but also in the contexts of cooperation. A corollary to the second point is that ethnic conflict manifests itself in various forms, including election, community service and violence. Thus, it need not always have negative consequences. Ethnicity also encompasses the behaviour of ethnic groups. Ethnic groups are groups with ascribed membership, usually but not always based on claims or fables of common history, ancestry, language, race, religion, culture and territory. While all these variables need not be present before a group is so defined, the important object is that such a group is classified or categorised as having a common identity that distinguishes it from others. It is this category by powerful agencies such as the state, religious institutions and the intelligentsia such as local ethnic historians that objectifies the ethnic group, often setting in film processes of self-identification or affirmation and recognition by others. Thus, ethnicity is not so much a matter of ��shared traits or cultural commonalities��, but the result of the interplay between outer categorization and self-identification (Brubaker, Loveman and Stamatov 2004:31-32).
Most analysts accede on the elementary constitutive elements of ethnic groups but differ on how and why they were formed, why ethnicity occurs, why it occasionally results in turbulent conflicts and what should be done to prevent its willful manifestations.. As Ake (2000) and Mustapha (2000) have correctly argued these differences have been overemphasized as use of one does not necessarily exclude the other. Most savants incorporate more than one perspective in their analyses. Essentialism, the earliest of the four approaches, arose from cultural cartographies and greatly influenced modernization theorists whose positions became the points of departure of the other three approaches. The retinue segments examine the interplay between the ethnicity and gender issues
TALCOTT PARSONS' VIEWS OF GENDER ROLES
Working in the United States, Talcott Parsons amplified a model of the nuclear family in 1955. (At that place and time, the nuclear family was considered to be the common family structure.) It compared a strictly traditional view of gender roles (from an industrial-age American perspective) to a more lavish view.
Parsons believed that the feminine role was an expressive one, though the masculine role, in his view, was instrumental. He believed that expressive activities of the woman achieve 'internal' functions, for example to reinforce the knots between members of the family. The man, on the other hand, performed the 'external' functions of a family, such as providing financial support.
The Parsons model was used to contrast and illuminate extreme positions on gender roles. Model A describes absolute disjunction of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution of barriers between gender roles.(The instances are based on the context of the culture and infrastructure of the United States but I have pretended it to that of Nigeria)

Model A - Total role segregation
Model B - Total disintegration of roles

Education
Gender-specific education; high vocational qualification is major only for the man
Co-educative schools, same content of classes for girls and boys, same qualification for men and women.

Profession
The workplace is not the basic area of women; career and professional advancement is deemed unimportant for women
For women, career is fair as important as for men; Therefore equal professional opportunities for men and women are necessary.

Housework
Housekeeping and child care are the primary functions of the woman; participation of the man in these functions is only partially wanted.
All housework is done by both parties to the marriage in equal shares.

Decision making
In case of conflict, man has the last say, case in point in choosing the place to live, choice of school for children, buying decisions
Neither associate dominates; solutions do not always follow the principle of finding a concerted decision; status quo is retained if disparity occurs.

Child care and education
Woman takes care of the largest part of these functions; she educates children and cares for them in every way
Man and woman share these functions equally.

Gender roles can influence a great many behavior, such as choice of clothing, choice of work and personal relationships; E.g., parental status and traditional belief in Nigeria.
GENDER ROLES AND SOCIALIZATION
The process through which the individual learns and accepts roles is called socialization. Socialization works by encouraging wanted and discouraging unwanted behavior. These sanctions by agencies of socialization such as the tradition, religion, family, schools, and the communication medium make it remove to the child what behavioral norms the child is expected to follow. The examples of the child's parents, siblings and teachers are typically followed. Mostly, accepted behaviour is not produced by outright reforming coercion from an accepted social system. In some other cases, various forms of coercion have been used to acquire a desired response or function.
In majority of the traditional and developmental social systems, an individual has a choice to what should he or she extent as a conformed representative of a socialization process. In this voluntary process, the consequences can be gainful or malfunctional, minor or caustic for every case by a behavior's socialization influence forming gender roles or expectations institutionalizing gender differences. Typical encouragements and expectations of gender role behavior are not as a mighty difference and reforming social trait to a century ago. Such evolutions and traditional refineries are still a socialization process to and within family merits, peer pressures, at the employ centers and in every social system communication medium.
Still, once somebody has approved certain gender roles and gender differences as an anticipated socialized behavioral norms, these behavior features become chapter of the individual's responsibilities not influential roles in gender relationships on a private and social levels to the individual's own socializing role or ego (identity). Sanctions to needless action and role clash can be stressful.
CHANGING ROLES
��
Girls can dress jeans
And tear their cilia short
Wear shirts and boots
'Cause it's OK to be a boy
But for a chap to see like a girl is degrading
'Cause you consider that being a girl is degrading
But secretly you'd adore to know what it's like
Wouldn't you
What it feels like for a girl
��

Source: The Cement Garden which appears in the Madonna melody, "What It Feels Like for a Girl"

A person's gender role is composed of several elements and can be expressed through clothes, behaviour, choice of work, personal relationships and other factors. These elements are not concrete and have evolved through time (case in point women's jeans).
Gender roles were traditionally divided into strictly female and manly gender roles, whereas these roles have diversified today into numerous another befitting man or woman gender roles. However, gender role norms because matrons and men can vary significantly from an country or culture to distinct, even within a nation or mores. People express their gender role somewhat uniquely. Gender role can vary according to the social group to which a human belongs or the subculture with which he or she identifies cultural identity. Historically, for example, eunuchs had a different gender role for their biology was changed.
GENDER ROLES AND FEMINISM
Most feminists argue that traditional gender roles are oppressive for women. They believe that the female gender role was constructed as an opposite to an ideal male role, and helps to perpetuate patriarchy. For around the final 100 years women have been fighting for the same rights as men (especially in the 1960s with second-wave feminism and radical feminism) and were able to make changes to the traditionally preferred feminine gender role. However, most feminists today mention there is still work to be done. Numerous studies and statistics show that even though the situation for women has improved during the last century, discrimination is still widespread: Women earn a smaller percent of total income than men, preoccupy lower-ranking job positions than men and do most of the housekeeping work[citation needed]. Some women, such as the editors of the Independent Women's Forum, discussion this claim. They argue that women really acquire 98 pence on the dollar when factors such as age, education, and experience are taken into account. However, feminists believe these factors are not neutral of gender. In fact, gender socialization informs the kind and width of education women receive, as well as the age at which women enter the workplace and the time spent working. Opponents counter that, regardless of what forces influence these factors, the testify of wide-spread discrimination against working women is very weak.
Furthermore, there has been a knowledge of Western culture, in recent periods, that the female gender role namely dichotomized into either being a "reside by home-mother" or a "vocation woman"[cite needed]. In reality, women routinely face a double burden: The need to equilibrium job and baby attention deprives women of baby boom. Whereas a great many men with university educations have a profession for well for a home, merely 50 percent of learned women have children. The twice burden problem was introduced to technological theory in 1956 by Myrdal and Klein in their work "Women's 2 roles: Home and work," issued in London. When feminism became a outstanding protest manoeuvre in the 60's, critics constantly discussed that women who ambitioned to emulate a traditional role would be distinguished opposition in the future and coerced to add the workforce. This has not proven true as such: though some women, particularly unattached parents are denied this choice deserving to economic necessity, there is mini or not bias against women who remain in traditional roles.[cite needed] At the beginning of the 21st centenary women who select to live in the classical role of the "linger by home-mother" are acceptable to Western society. There is not complete tolerance of all female gender roles - there is some perpetual presupposition and discrimination against those who prefer to cling to traditional female gender roles (Sometimes termed creature femme or a "girly girl") , antagonism feminism, in methodology, not creature about the choices made but the freedom to make that choice.[8] Women who choose to pursue careers and higher education are also similarly stigmatized at decisive religious groups. Often accused of "trying to transform a man" and "abandoning their children" if they pursue anything outdoor the role of mother, housekeeper, and maid
SITUATING GENDER ISSUES IN NIGERIAN CONTEXT
Methodology used
Interview and the use of questionnaire was hired about 350 questionnaire was supervised to about five different ethnic group in Nigeria based in Lagos. Respondents included leaders from local ethnic group in Lagos, religious groups, women's, youth and other people from different group. Special emphasis was put on the female respondents, A geographic approach was also used, with group concentration as emphasis of choice of position as most Ijaw, Isoko people reside in the riverine zones of Lagos notably, Ilaje-bariga, Okokomaiko, Orile and Ajegunle when the Igbo people stay in Alaba International, ladipo etc where they do their affair and the Hausa people are located in Alaba-rago, mile-12, and Isolo-Mushin.
GENDER ROLES AT HOUSEHOLD AND COMMUNITY LEVEL
Gender roles are another in any society. In each ethnic group, there are definitions of what women and men of that society are expected to do in their mature life. Children are socialised to internalise these roles. Girls and boys are arranged for their different but specific roles. Most times when a man is seen act women's tasks, other members of society regard him as a coward, docile, or stupid. When a woman does what is presumed a man's task, such a woman is regarded as too tough or being "more than a woman."
Tasks women are incapable to do, they engage paid labour for. Women are hunting and fishing to cultivate the nutrition criteria of their families, yet traditionally in the Nigerian ethnic group society, these were exclusively men's roles. Men and women gave different reasons why women work more than men did in the quondam especially among the Igbo ethnic group and some part of the south notably the isoko��s

Men's perceptions
Women's perceptions

We pay so much bride price that we expect our wives to work hard in order to pay back.
In a course, we buy the women. "Once you buy someone, that person should work for you." An Igbo respondent said
Some women enjoy hard work to please their husbands and in-laws and to show respect even if they are not yet married to you. A Yoruba man explains
Some women do not want to be helped with household work. They view household work as their domain and they do not want men to mediate.
Some women believe that they are married to work for their husbands and they view it as a failure on their part if their husbands want to help.
When we help our wives with household work, some of them gossip about it and this makes us loath to continue helping with such tasks, some Yoruba respondent explains
Men take women as slaves. An Hausa madame responds
Men are selfish. They do not want to work.
Men who have more than one wife find it hard to work for all the wives and quit the women to fend for themselves and their children. Hausa and Yoruba ladies explains

When further examining men and women's tasks it was discovered that very few tasks were exclusively done by women or men. It was agreed that, apart from giving birth, men and women perform all other tasks. Roles specific to men were identified as: - excavating graves, fathering a child, excavating pit latrines, paying bride costs, wedding women and `disciplining' women.
Disciplining women
Disciplining women as a role for men generated a lot of diverse view among different ethnic group but about 40% of the man agreed that it is the responsibility of a man to punishment his wife and this 40 percent is across board all ethnic group especially amongst the Yoruba and Hausa people. Men were pressed hard to explain what they meant by "disciplining." The men argued that women need to be guided when they make errors. They penalize them by beating. Apart from disciplining women, the issue of domestic violence and the treatment of women as minors was also raised by some female respondents. Reasons were explored why men batter their wives. The male respondents explained that women provoked men to knock them. One man said that: "Yoruba women have a keen tongue and since men do not want to reply back, they beat them".

SHARING OF DOMESTIC ROLES
A approximation was made between a home where there is co-operation and sharing of work between spouses and another where there is no such co-operation. It should be pointed out that in a household where there is no co-operation and sharing of work, there is: starvation, privation, quarrels and fighting, children not attending school, sickness, poor clothing, separation or divorce and stealing. Whereas a home with co-operation is characterised by: fecund edible with many granaries in the compound, love, respect, asset (e.g. more cows), children going to school, good health, good housing, and better clothing.
The respondents pointed out that a home with co-operation is extra desirable. However, they recognised that a great many households in the communities were characterised by some of the factors of lack of co-operation. They knew quite few men who helped their wives with household chores and those famous for this perform are the Isoko men they forever help in servants especially cooking infact they are known to be nice cook. It was pointed out that such men are usually phoned labels and periodically they cannot mingle freely with others for panic of being ridiculed by their colleagues.but other groups especially the Igbos and the Hausas are on the inverse
But men need to take up more responsibilities in the home. Some of the tasks that men could assist with in the home include: collecting water, taking care of themselves, collecting fire-wood, pounding Yam, caring for children, doing more farming - putting in more hours per day, weeding, farming, and cooking. In order to reduce the stigma of men helping their wives with domestic chores, women groups Men also complained that women are very quarrelsome. They said that some men want to discuss certain issues with their wives, but the women become hostile and do not want to discuss anything with them.the practice whereby women go to the plough and the men sit back at home among the Igbo Edo and Isoko has since been faced out and most of the men are now taking responsibility of such deeds at home.
WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITIES
This heading is discussed in the context of leadership in a community. Qualities of a good and a wrong leader will be identified and whether or not women have such qualities. But it should be noted that Nigeria as a country is the grabbing in the euphoria of bad leadership and the solution to this problem as expressed by some 15 min is the need for women to be in the helms of businesses but some have proposed otherwise. They were interlocked to the discussion on gender
Qualities of a good leader
A good leader should:
Be honest some of Nigeria��s leaders sometimes lie to us about information received from the state or from the central government in Abuja. A good leader should be accountable to the people by informing them about decisions taken during the meetings of the committees; this has been lacking and explains the reasons why people like Salisu Buhari, Evans Ewerem and other leaders lied about there qualification, all are men.
Be well accused - because of high levels of illiteracy and lack of access to information, some of the leaders were taking advantage of this to misinform the communities for their personal benefit. A good leader should discuss people about their needs and problems
Not use his/her privileged position for personal acquisitions - some infact most of Nigerian leaders were using their privileged positions to pester women into ######ual relationships and communities were unhappy about such leaders;
Be development oriented - some leaders did not encourage people to start income generating activities or mobilise them to undertake development programmes in their communities. It should be noted that a good leader is one who educates or sensitizes those he or she is guiding so that they can improve their well being and that of their communities. A Leader should plan for their areas and exhort the people on all aspects of development. He/she should motivate people's initiatives, cooperate with them and co-ordinate development activities.
It ought be further pointed out that some governors were sickly and not capable apt perform their duties. An issue was heaved that some chairmen may have diseases favor AIDS which makes them also languid to go and already they do not waive their mastery roles. This was heaved in a few areas merely appeared apt be a acute issue - whether folk who are yet undergoing from AIDS should be selected to leadership locations or not.
Then we should examine whether or not women have the desired leadership qualities. In most cases women possess most of the good leadership qualities. However it should also be noted that a certain number of constraints to women's participation in leadership:
Constraints to women's participation in leadership
men do not allow their wives to heed meetings, even when they themselves already hold such positions, as they fear that women are being baited into relationships with other male leaders;
women's workload causes poor time-keeping and prohibits their effective participation;
lack of respect for women as leaders by both women and men;
lack of transport (conferences are usually far and most women do not own cars);
cheap educational levels amid women;
culturally determined factors: women are timid, lack confidence, have a low self-esteem;
separation or divorce - when this happens a woman has to go away. This creates a problem if she is a leader;
marriage (girls cannot prop positions of leadership in a community because they sooner or later get married and go to another community, so they are not elected to leadership positions).
women are normally not thought fit for leadership.
FEMALE CIRCUMCISION IN NIGERIA
Female genital cutting (FGC),vibram 5 fingers, also known as female circumcision in Nigeria, is a common practice in many societies in the northern half of sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly prevalent in a few countries, it is veteran by various groups in at least 25 African countries, in Yemen, and in immigrant African populations in Europe and North USA. In a few societies, the procedure is routinely carried out when a girl is a few weeks or a few months age (e.g. Eritrea, Yemen), while in most others, it occurs later in childhood or puberty. In the case of the latter, FGC is typically part of a ceremony initiation into womanhood that includes a period of privacy and education about the rights and duties of a wife. The 2003 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (2003 NDHS) collected data on the practice of female circumcision in Nigeria from all women age 15-49. The 1999 NDHS collected data on female circumcision only from currently married women. In this chapter,nike air max skyline, topics discussed include knowledge, prevalence, and type; age at circumcision; person who performed the circumcision; and attitudes towards the practice.
KNOWLEDGE AND PREVALENCE OF FEMALE CIRCUMCISION
About half (53 percent) of Nigerian women age 15-49 have heard of the practice. There are marked variations in knowledge of female circumcision by residence, region, education, and ethnicity. About two-thirds of urban respondents have heard of female circumcision, compared with less than half of women in rural areas (69 versus 45 percent). In general, women in the south are more than twice as likely as women in the north to asylum heard of the practice. These variations by region and residence are a reflection of ethnic differentials. The Igbo and Yoruba, who are especially resident in the South East and South West, respectively, have greater knowledge of female circumcision than the ethnic groups mainly resident in the north.
Table 13.1 also shows the prevalence of female circumcision by backdrop specifics, which follows the same patterns as wisdom of circumcision. The proportion of women who were circumcised at the time of the scrutinize was greatest in the southern regions, among the Yoruba and Igbo, and among urban residents. The high circulation of female circumcision among the Yoruba (61 percent) and Igbo (45 percent) helps to unravel local and urban-rural differentials, since the Yoruba and Igbo traditionally reside in the South West and South East, which are more urban than the north. More than double as many of the oldest women as the youngest women are circumcised (28 versus 13 percent), suggesting that there has been a decline in the train. Caldwell et al. (2000) have reported a decline in the prevalence of female circumcision among the Yoruba.
AGE AT CIRCUMCISION
The percent distribution of women by age at circumcision is presented in Table 13.2. Female circumcision in Nigeria occurs mostly in childhood (i.e., before the first birthday). Three-quarters of the women who underwent circumcision were circumcised by age one. Twenty-one percent, whatever, were circumcised at age five or older. There are marked variations in the proportions of women circumcised in infancy by dwelling and ethnicity. For instance, virtually nine in ten Igbo and Yoruba were circumcised during childhood compared with less than half of those in other ethnic groups (45 percent). Infibulation, the most severe form of circumcision, is more likely to be carried out on women circumcised at a later age than on the very young. The table shows that 37 percent of those cut before the age of one had been infibulated, while 49 percent of those circumcised afterward the age of four were infibulated. It should be noted that the total number of respondents infibulated was 57.
Nigeria is a male prevailed society and women are looked as inferior to men. Women's traditional role is to have children and be responsible for the home. Their low status and lack of access to education boosts their vulnerability to HIV infection. Certain social and cultural practices also make them vulnerable to HIV.
HIV/AIDS AND NIGERIAN WOMEN: CAUSES
Marriage practices
Harmful marriage practices violate women's human rights and contribute to increasing HIV rates in women and girls. In Nigeria there is no legal minimum age for marriage and early marriage is still the regulation in some areas. Parents see it as a way of protecting young girls from the outside world and maintaining their chastity.
Many girls get married between the ages of 12 and 13 and there is usually a great age gap between husband and wife. Young marital girls are at risk of contracting HIV from their husbands as it is acceptable for men to have ######ual partners outside wedding and some men have more than one wife (polygamy). Because of their age, lack of education and low status, juvenile marital girls are not able to negotiate condom use to defend themselves against HIV and STIs.
Female circumcision
Female circumcision/female genital mutilation (FGM) is a cultural practice whereby all or part of the external female genitalia is removed by cutting. Around 60% of all Nigerian women experience FGM and it is most common in the south, where up to 85% of women suffer it at some point in their lives. FGM puts women and girls at risk of contracting HIV from unsterilized instruments, such as knives and broken glass that are used during the procedure.
###### work
Although prostitution is unlawful in Nigeria there are more than a million female ###### personnel. HIV infection rates among ###### workers have been estimated to be as high as 30% in some areas. There are low levels of condom use among ###### workers because of a lack of knowledge about HIV transportation and needy approval by male customers.10
Gender roles around the world needle women into positions where they lack the power to protect themselves from HIV infection and where, if they are infected, they lack opportunities to receive treatment. Negative speculations about women's roles and discrimination against them must be challenged and women must be empowered to help themselves and to protect themselves.
Women who have been raped need to have access to post-exposure prophylaxis - remedial techniques which can dilute the opportunities of HIV infection if the victim of a rape is treated fast. In many (primarily African) countries with high levels of ######ual violence against women and high HIV prevalence, this treatment is not freely accessible to women.
Protecting women from HIV is not solely women's liability. Most HIV+ women were infected by unprotected ###### with an infected man. Preventing infection is the responsibility of both partners, and men must play an equal role in this. If no HIV+ men had unprotected hetero######ual ######, the number of women newly infected with HIV would plummet. Even in the United States, there is still much more to be done to protect women. There has been criticism that ###### education in schools in the America is based on the idea that ######ual fidelity until marriage is the best way to prevent STD infection. This won't protect a women if she is infected by the man she marries, and it leaves her vulnerable and unaware if she changes her idea, and has ###### before marriage. This is why women must be taught about reducing risk by using condoms, and condoms must be accessible obtainable for women.
Violence against women, discrimination, gender-based inequalities, prostitution - these are all social issues which undeniably need to be changed, but which might take decades to vary. Women who have HIV need to access to handling, and women who don't have the virus need to be able to protect themselves. If, in the short term, it is impossible to empower women to be able to insist on condom use, then efforts must be made to ascertain an choice solution.
There are plans underway to develop a microbicide - a gel or cream which can be applied vaginally, without a partner even knowing, and which would slay HIV, preventing infection. Tests have been being done for a number of years, but medical experts say that even now all goes well, such a gel is still at least 5 years away.
There are many issues surrounding the development of microbicides. Even if such a product can be shown to be both safe and functional, it will then have to be made delicious to clients from different countries and cultures. One particular issue is pregnancy. Women in developing countries may want a microbicide that prevents HIV infection but which allows pregnancy to occur, whilst other women may want to be protected against both HIV infection and pregnancy. Given that a number of faith-based organisations espouse anti-contraception views, it seems likely that a microbicide which does not prevent pregnancy will be more easily accepted.
Many women may not think they are at risk for HIV infection. There is still, in some places, a myth that HIV infection is someone that happens to other people - to men, to injecting pill users, to people from other ethnic groups. This falsehood needs to be cleared up, and countries around the world need to empower women to be able to protect themselves.

CONCLUSION
The Gender and ethnicity in Nigeria. This is a research paper undertaken to create awareness at the community level on the need to assist and qualify women to effectively utilise the opportunities provided by the Constitution and to examine the reaction or opinion of different answer from ethnic group in Nigeria
The Gender and ethnicity in Nigeria paper provided the opportunity me to browse the relationship between women and men in discussing and examine the issue of women in leadership positions, HIV/AIDs, Female Circumcisions, households, and changing roles and amongs the various ethnic group in Nigeria. A strategic location was chose which is Lagos that houses all tribes and ethnic group (in large proportion) in Nigeria.
The respondents embodied leaders from ethnic group, religious groups, women's groups, youngster, and other small groups. Specific emphasis was put on women. During the lesson of the research work, respondents used their experience to reckon and responded to every question about how far women had come in the skirmish for equal participation in community and leadership, the challenges and constraints they face, and how this process can be supported.
The paper focused on household and community roles for both women and men. While there was accession by both men and women on what women do, men's roles were disputed by women and some men. They insisted that even when men undertake certain roles, they do as little as possible. The discussions revealed that women do all the reproductive work, undertake most of the pregnant work and get cracking a bigger share of community roles. Women are continuously taking up roles that were traditionally men's tasks.
The experience of analyzing the integration of gender into ethnic groups in Nigeria and development planning has shown experimental success. The most important aspect of such follow-up should be sensitisation and building the capacity of elected policy makers and implementers to enable them to integrate gender in policy making, planning and implementation of programmes.
It must also be famous that Incorporating equal opportunities for women and men into all Community policies and activities that is "Gender mainstreaming involves not impeding efforts to subserve equality to the implementation of specific fathom to help women, but mobilising all general policies and measures specifically for the purpose of achieving parity by actively and aboveboard taking into list at the blueprinting stage their likely effects above the respective position of men and women (gender outlook). This means systematically examining measures and policies and taking into list such possible effects while defining and implementing them."
"Action to promote equality requires an intent approximate which presupposes the admission of male and female identities and the goodwill to build a balanced distribution of responsibilities among women and men."
"The promotion of equality must not be confused with the easy objective of balancing the statistics: it is a question of promoting long-lasting changes in parental roles, family buildings, institutional practices, the organistation of work and time, their personal development and independence, but also cares men and the whole of society, in which it can encourage progress and be a token of democracy and pluralism."
"The systematic attention of the differences between the conditions, situations and needs of women and men in all Community policies and actions: this is the basic trait of the principle of 'mainstreaming', which the Commission has accepted. This does not average simply making Community programmes or resources more accessible to women, but rather the concurrent mobilisation of valid instruments, monetary resources and the Community's interpretative and organisational capacities in order to introduce in all areas the lust to establish balanced relationships between women and men. In this esteem it is essential and important to found the plan of equality between women and men on a sound statistical analysis of the situation of women and men in the various areas of life and the changes taking place in societies."
RECOMMENDATIONS
Solutions to women's constraints to leadership: The following solutions were proposed to these constraints:
Men should learn to believe their wives. Women should also conduct well so that their husbands can believe them;
Men should take up household work. When women go for meetings case in point, men should facilitate in collecting firewood, water, cooking and taking care of the children;
Change of attitude by men and women towards women's leadership. Women need to learn to support each other more;
Sensitisation of men so that they can grant their wives to participate in leadership;
Family planning; having fewer children will create more time for women.;
Education of girls as future leaders;
Organising adult literacy classes for women;
Sensitisation regarding the negative cultural attitudes towards women.
1 Training and sensitization programmes
These leaders need to be able to analyse and articulate development plans for their communities. Both women and men Local Council members will benefit from training in government work, information assembly, consensus structure with their electorate etc., which will enhance their capacity to better undertake the role they have been elected for.
This provides an opportunity to involve them in issues, which require a current way of cerebral. At present day, politicians kas long asgender and women's empowerment is an issue that they cannot ignore. A sensitisation and training programme for elected Local Council Members would be very serviceable..
Gender awareness training for technical officers
Whereas politicians are responsible for policy making, technical people are in charge of the implementation of these policies and they advise politicians on policy issues. The technical experts in different sectors such as health, education, farming and community development need to know how to integrate gender considerations into programme planning and implementation. Most of them have had training that was gender blind. Integration of gender concerns in technical fields is important for the implementation of policies. The technocrats who are mainly at area level, need to recognise that gender is a crosscutting issue and need to be trained on how to integrate gender issues in the development programmes.
Training for lower levels development workers
Gender issues need to be integrated at all levels of programme implementation. At community level, most development programmes are implemented through extension workers in different fields, like agriculture and health. These field workers could be trained to integrate gender in what they do. Furthermore there are the teachers at basic school level. Some of them could be chose for training in gender issues to enable them to make gender central to their work.
Training the field workers is important, as they have the chance of close interactions with grassroots people. Training field employees would ensure that gender is included in all their community work, which reaches a crowd of the people. It is important that such education be joined to directions on the use of participatory approaches, which -one- would pile upon the interest, creativity and hopefulness raised during the gender and decentralisation programme, and -two- would provide room for "local" solutions, taking into account cultural and accustomed decrees that hinder women's full participation in politics and leadership.
Information-Education-Communication materials
It is important that all the whole sensitisation and training process be re-enforced by IEC substances in the local languages. Posters based on the issues raised during the programme should be produced to send the results closer to the people and to enable them to better obliged the situation.
Evaluation and monitoring
Monitoring and appraisal tools need to be devised based upon either the gender assessment learn as well as the report of the Gender equity agenda. These tools should converge on gender representation at all the local administration levels, and at state and allied administration, as well as shock of the various exercising programmes.


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